تحقیق درباره معلولیت و انواع آن

50 صفحه

قابل ویرایش

فصل 1 - کودکان استثنایی

فصل 2 - تیزهوشان

فصل 3- عقب ماندگی ذهنی

فصل 4 - اختلالات رفتاری

فصل 5 -اختلالات خاص یادگیری

فصل 6 -معلولیت دیداری

فصل 7 -معلولیت شنوایی

فصل 8 -اختلالات گفتاری

فصل 9- معلولیت جسمی - حرکتی

مقدمه

همه افراد انسان ها از نقطه نظر خصوصیات مختلف جسمانی، بیولوژیکی، ذهنی، روانی و عاطفی، سازگاری اجتماعی و... یکسان نبوده و نسبت به همدیگر دارای تفاوت های خاصی اند. در واقع نه تنها هر فرد نسبت به افراد دیگر از نقطه نظر ابعاد مختلف جسمانی و ذهنی دارای تفاوت های ویژه ای است حتی بین توانایی ها و استعدادهای مختلف نیز تفاوت هایی مشهود و موجود است لذا بدین ترتیب هر فرد نسبت به افراد دیگر استثنایی است و کلمه «استثنایی» به طور اعم و به معنای دقیق علمی خود نمی تواند فقط به گروه های خاصی از افراد جامعه اطلاق شود.

    آنچه که ما اصطلاحاً «کودک استثنایی» می گوییم غالباً بدین معناست که کودک از نظر هوشی، جسمی، روانی و اجتماعی به میزان قابل توجهی نسبت به دیگر همسالان خود متفاوت می باشد که نمی تواند به نحوی مطلوب حداکثر استفاده را از برنامه های آموزش و پرورش عادی ببرد و ناگزیر نیازمند به توجه خاص و آموزش و خدمات فوق العاده ای می باشد.

 همواره یکی از دلایلی که ما نمی توانیم اطلاعات کاملاً‌ مربوط و جامعی در مورد کودکان و دانش آموزان استثنایی بدست بیاوریم اینست که معمولاً وقتی با کودک استثنایی مواجه می شویم ذهن ما بخاطر انباشته شدن ، از غیر عادی بودن ذهنی یا جسمی کودک پیشداوری می کند و غالباً ویژگیهای خاصی که کودکان استثنایی دارند ( نابینایی – ناشنوایی – عقب ماندگی و ) مشخصه اصلی آنها می شود .

متاسفانه اکثر والدین از داشتن چنین فرزندانی احساس شرمندگی می کنند ودر قالب موارد سعی در مخفی کردن کودکشان در انظار عمومی دارند .

  تاکنون کوشش‌های زیادی برای تعریف "کودک استثنایی" به‌عمل آمده است. برخی، استثنایی را به کسی اطلاق می‌کنند که از هوش و استعداد خارق‌العاده‌ای برخوردار باشد. دیگران، این اصطلاح را موقعی به‌کار می‌برند که بخواهند هر نوع کودک غیرعادی را توصیف کنند. با وجود این، اصطلاح کودک استثنایی برای توصیف کودکان معلول و معیوب و مستعد و باهوش هر دو به یک اندازه مورد پذیرش قرار گرفته است.

  مفهوم عادی و بهنجار، به افرادی اطلاق می‌گردد که در حد طبیعی و عادی گذران زندگی می‌کنند. از نظر عامه، فردی که رفتارش چون دیگران است و مانند همه و به‌طور معمولی و عادی زندگی روزمره خویش را می‌گذراند، بهنجار و طبیعی است. از نظر علمی، چنانچه بهره هوشی(IQ) شخصی 100 باشد یا به عبارت دیگر سن تقویمی و سن عقلی فرد برابری کند، آن فرد طبیعی و بهنجار است.

  بررسی‌های علمی نشان داده است که از هر ده انسانی که در این جهان پهناور زیست می‌کنند، یک نفر شناخته یا ناشناخته با معلولیت و کمبودی درگیر است و قریب 5 درصد کودکان، دچار نقص جسمی و حسی و یا ذهنی هستند و درصد قابل توجهی از این گروه، نیاز به آموزش خاص و مراقبت ویژه دارند.

و من هم امیدوارم این تحقیق علمی کسانی را که خواهان علم و دانش بیشتر هستند آنان را پیشتر آگاه کند.

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ANXIETY DISORDERS

What are anxiety disorders?

What are the different types of anxiety disorders?

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:   symptoms,   diagnosis,   treatmentPanic Disorder:   symptoms,   diagnosis,   treatmentPhobias:   symptoms,   diagnosis,   treatmentPost-traumatic Stress Disorder:   symptoms,   diagnosis,   treatment

Where can I get more information?

What are anxiety disorders?

Anxiety disorders range from feelings of uneasiness to immobilizing bouts of terror. This fact sheet briefly describes the different types of anxiety disorders. This fact sheet is not exhaustive, nor does it include the full range of symptoms and treatments. Keep in mind that new research can yield rapid and dramatic changes in our understanding of and approaches to mental disorders. If you believe you or a loved one has an anxiety disorder, seek competent, professional advice or another form of support.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Most people experience anxiety at some point in their lives and some nervousness in anticipation of a real situation. However if a person cannot shake unwarranted worries, or if the feelings are jarring to the point of avoiding everyday activities, he or she most likely has an anxiety disorder.

Symptoms: Chronic, exaggerated worry, tension, and irritability that appear to have no cause or are more intense than the situation warrants. Physical signs, such as restlessness, trouble falling or staying asleep, headaches, trembling, twitching, muscle tension, or sweating, often accompany these psychological symptoms.

Formal diagnosis: When someone spends at least six months worried excessively about everyday problems. However, incapacitating or troublesome symptoms warranting treatment may exist for shorter periods of time.

Treatment: Anxiety is among the most common, most treatable mental disorders. Effective treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy, relaxation techniques, and biofeedback to control muscle tension. Medication, most commonly anti-anxiety drugs, such as benzodiazepine and its derivatives, also may be required in some cases. Some commonly prescribed anti-anxiety medications are diazepam, alprazolam, and lorazepam. The non-benzodiazepine anti-anxiety medication buspirone can be helpful for some individuals.

Panic Disorder: People with panic disorder experience white-knuckled, heart-pounding terror that strikes suddenly and without warning. Since they cannot predict when a panic attack will seize them, many people live in persistent worry that another one could overcome them at any moment.

Symptoms: Pounding heart, chest pains, lightheadedness or dizziness, nausea, shortness of breath, shaking or trembling, choking, fear of dying, sweating, feelings of unreality, numbness or tingling, hot flashes or chills, and a feeling of going out of control or going crazy.

Formal Diagnosis: Either four attacks within four weeks or one or more attacks followed by at least a month of persistent fear of having another attack. A minimum of four of the symptoms listed above developed during at least one of the attacks. Most panic attacks last only a few minutes, but they occasionally go on for ten minutes, and, in rare cases, have been known to last for as long as an hour. They can occur at any time, even during sleep.

Treatment: Cognitive behavioral therapy and medications such as high-potency anti-anxiety drugs like alprazolam. Several classes of antidepressants (such as paroxetine, one of the newer selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) and the older tricyclics and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors) are considered "gold standards" for treating panic disorder. Sometimes a combination of therapy and medication is the most effective approach to helping people manage their symptoms. Proper treatment helps 70 to 90 percent of people with panic disorder, usually within six to eight weeks.

Phobias: Most of us steer clear of certain, hazardous things. Phobias however, are irrational fears that lead people to altogether avoid specific things or situations that trigger intense anxiety. Phobias occur in several forms, for example, agoraphobia is the fear of being in any situation that might trigger a panic attack and from which escape might be difficult. Social phobia is a fear of being extremely embarrassed in front of other people. The most common social phobia is fear of public speaking.

Symptoms: Many of the physical symptoms that accompany panic attacks - such as sweating, racing heart, and trembling - also occur with phobias.

Formal Diagnosis: The person experiences extreme anxiety with exposure to the object or situation; recognizes that his or her fear is excessive or unreasonable; and finds that normal routines, social activities, or relationships are significantly impaired as a result of these fears.

Treatment: Cognitive behavioral therapy has the best track record for helping people overcome most phobic disorders. The goals of this therapy are to desensitize a person to feared situations or to teach a person how to recognize, relax, and cope with anxious thoughts and feelings. Medications, such as anti-anxiety agents or antidepressants, can also help relieve symptoms. Sometimes therapy and medication are combined to treat phobias.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Researchers now know that anyone, even children, can develop PTSD if they have experienced, witnessed, or participated in a traumatic occurrence-especially if the event was life threatening. PTSD can result from terrifying experiences such as rape, kidnapping, natural disasters, or war or serious accidents such as airplane crashes. The psychological damage such incidents cause can interfere with a person's ability to hold a job or to develop intimate relationships with others.

Symptoms: The symptoms of PTSD can range from constantly reliving the event to a general emotional numbing. Persistent anxiety, exaggerated startle reactions, difficulty concentrating, nightmares, and insomnia are common. People with PTSD typically avoid situations that remind them of the traumatic event, because they provoke intense distress or even panic attacks.

Formal Diagnosis: Although the symptoms of PTSD may be an appropriate initial response to a traumatic event, they are considered part of a disorder when they persist beyond three months.

Treatment: Psychotherapy can help people who have PTSD regain a sense of control over their lives. They also may need cognitive behavior therapy to change painful and intrusive patterns of behavior and thought and to learn relaxation techniques. Support from family and friends can help speed recovery and healing. Medications, such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety agents to reduce anxiety, can ease the symptoms of depression and sleep problems. Treatment for PTSD often includes both psychotherapy and medication.

For more information, as well as referrals to specialists and self-help groups in your State, contact:

Anxiety Disorders Association of America8730 Georgia Avenue - Suite 600Silver Spring, MD 20910Telephone: [phone]Fax: [phone]http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/_scripts/redirect.asp?ID=145Mental Help NetCenterSite, LLC570 Metro PlaceDublin, OH 43017http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/_scripts/redirect.asp?ID=5036National Mental Health Association2001 Beauregard Street, 12th FloorAlexandria, VA 22311Telephone: [phone]Fax: [phone](TDD): 800-433-5959http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/_scripts/redirect.asp?ID=5037The National Institute of Mental Health's toll-free information line is 1-888-ANXIETY; their web address is http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/_scripts/redirect.asp?ID=150.

Note: These are suggested resources. This is not meant to be a complete list.

KEN98-004504/03

Please note that this online publication has been abridged from the printed version.

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